With the continued internationalization of the student population, Queen’s University is becoming increasingly diverse. However, many international students, particularly those who speak English as an additional language (EAL), face unique challenges in academic writing. While English language proficiency is often identified as the primary reason for these challenges, cultural factors also play a significant role in shaping students’ writing practices.
It is noteworthy that many student groups from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, who may not identify as international students (e.g., students with diverse high school experiences, Francophone students, or Indigenous students), may share some or many of these challenges. Recognizing these anticipated challenges in academic writing can help educators better support the learning needs of an increasingly diverse student population.
Writing as EAL Students
International students who speak English as an additional language (EAL) face distinct challenges in academic writing. Many report limited prior experience writing in English beyond the sentence level, and some rarely read “extended academic texts (over 1,000 words)” in English during their earlier education1 (p.64). As a result, these students may not yet be able to effectively transfer reading and writing skills from their first language to English, which can restrict their written output.
In addition, grammatical inaccuracy in EAL writing is often linked to communicative competence, which emphasizes meaning-making over decontextualized grammar practice1. In a conversation where an additional language is used, ideas can be conveyed despite grammatical errors, whereas an excessive focus on accuracy may hinder fluency in both speaking and writing. Because grammatical development follows a gradual sequence, prioritizing meaning may temporarily reduce accuracy, and there are no shortcuts to this process.
EAL students entering Canadian post-secondary education are often screened through tests such as IELTS (International English Language Testing System), or TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), PTE Academic (Pearson Test of English) and are therefore assumed to meet minimum language requirements1. However, these assessments measure general language proficiency rather than discipline-specific academic language.
Since different disciplines in higher education have distinct linguistic demands, test scores do not reliably predict academic success. Instead, entry-level language proficiency should be viewed as “a starting point for further development” 2 (p.6), requiring continued language growth throughout higher education.
Additionally, EAL students enter post-secondary institutions through multiple pathways, some of which do not require proficiency tests, such as intensive English language programs. It remains unclear whether these pathways adequately support academic language development or allow students to “fly under the language radar” 2 (p.20) once enrolled.
Each academic discipline employs its own conventions, genres, and discourse practices. Students enrolled in courses across multiple disciplines may feel overwhelmed by differing, and sometimes conflicting, writing expectations.
International students may be particularly unfamiliar with these expectations. For example, creativity encouraged in a student’s first language may be discouraged or undervalued in English academic writing, leading some students to suppress their voice or sense of identity in order to “strictly adhere to academic conventions” 1 (p.66).
Given the changing demographics of Canadian post-secondary institutions, including Queen’s University, it is increasingly important to create safe spaces where mismatches between student and instructor expectations can be openly discussed. This also invites broader reflection on how educators define, teach, and assess “good” academic writing.
Academic writing is challenging for all students, but especially for EAL learners who are simultaneously developing language proficiency and disciplinary knowledge.
Learning to write in an additional language often involves “borrowing others’ words4 (p.227) or “reusing chunks of language”3 (p.282). Novice EAL writers may draw heavily from source texts to convey meaning, gradually moving toward more original and creative writing. This developmental process does not always align with instructors’ expectations.
EAL students also need to acquire new subject knowledge, integrate it with prior experiences, and sometimes process ideas through their first language before expressing them in English1. As a result, students may struggle to distinguish between their own ideas, common disciplinary knowledge, and ideas learned from others. Many report that they do not feel a strong sense of ownership over the words they write.
In summary, difficulty in developing an authorial voice is a common dilemma for EAL students and may increase the risk of academic misconduct. This raises important questions about whether borrowing language or ideas during the early stages of EAL academic writing should always be viewed as intentional academic violation, or rather as part of a complex and developmental learning process.
What can Educators do to Help?
Students in higher education are often viewed as primarily responsible for their own learning. However, educators and the broader university community play a critical role in providing resources and learning opportunities that support EAL students’ continued development of English language proficiency and academic success.
Educators can adopt a range of strategies, depending on the flexibility available within their courses, to respond to students’ language and learning needs, particularly in supporting the development of academic writing skills2.
| Strategies | Examples | Support |
|---|---|---|
| Advise students to seek writing and language support | Provide feedback that encourages students to access campus resources that support academic writing and learning skills, such as Student Academic Success Services (SASS) | Minimal Intervention ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ High Intervention |
| Organize discipline-specific writing workshops | Collaborate with a writing or learning specialist from SASS to offer a workshop focused on academic writing in the discipline or a specific writing assignment. | |
| Identify patterns of error in student writing | Correct selected linguistic errors (often on the first few pages only) and comment on recurring issues. Ask students to revise and resubmit after addressing identified patterns. | |
| Provide feedback with alternative expressions | Correct most linguistic errors, identify phrases or sentences requiring revision, and suggest alternatives to improve clarity of expression. | |
| Read drafts and provide formative feedback | Offer detailed feedback on multiple drafts prior to final submission, including guided self-editing activities and structured peer feedback. | |
| Provide intensive individual support | Meet with students individually at various stages of the writing process to support planning, drafting, revising, and editing. |
Cultural Diversity in Academic Writing
Beyond English language proficiency, cultural factors significantly inform international students’ academic writing practices. This is because writing is “an activity that is normally embedded in the culture, and it actually sets rules and patterns that are typically shared by a given community”7 (p.57). As a result, expectations around writing structure, critical thinking, and citation may differ considerably from students’ prior educational experiences.
To support international students in navigating English academic writing, both educators and students benefit from developing a shared understanding of how cultural diversity impacts writing practices.
In response to these needs, a workshop series has been developed to help educators and students explore cultural influences on academic writing, critical thinking, and citation practices—areas that many international students have identified as key barriers to success in their academic studies. Recordings of these sessions are available below.
Session One: Academic Writing
Contrary to the belief that English language proficiency alone accounts for international students’ writing challenges, this workshop examines academic writing through a cultural lens, exploring how prior educational and cultural experiences shape students’ writing practices in English.
Facilitated by Yunyi Chen, Centre for Teaching and Learning
Panelists: Alyssa Foerstner and Lydia Skulstad, Student Academic Success Services (SASS); and Molalign Adugna (PhD Candidate) School of Rehabilitation Therapy
- The diverse skill sets international students bring to the classroom are not inherently deficient; they are simply different. Deficit-oriented feedback (e.g., comments highlighted in red and punctuated with multiple exclamation points)9 should be avoided in favour of feedback that focuses on supporting students’ development as academic writers.
- Culturally responsive teaching involves observing and understanding students’ practices, rather than judging them against ethnocentric standards.
- Respect is essential for negotiating academic expectations, supporting effective communication, and transcending national and cultural boundaries.
- Use early diagnostic tasks to identify what students can and cannot yet do in writing within your discipline1, 8.
- Make academic writing conventions explicit; explain requirements clearly and provide writing samples whenever possible.
- Scaffold writing assignments and provide formative feedback to support language development, writing skills, and student confidence.
- Encourage extensive reading in the discipline; reading supports vocabulary development, grammatical accuracy, and writing fluency.
- Build in regular writing practice focused on specific genres and provide timely feedback that can be applied to future assignments.
- Collaborate with Student Academic Success Services (SASS) to identify key disciplinary literacy skills and provide targeted student support.
Session Two: Critical Thinking
International students from diverse cultural, educational, and linguistic backgrounds may encounter obstacles demonstrating critical thinking in written assignments and are sometimes misjudged as lacking this skill. This workshop challenges that assumption by examining barriers to critical thinking in English academic writing from a cultural perspective.
Facilitated by Yunyi Chen, Centre for Teaching and Learning
Panelists: Johanna Amos and Lydia Skulstad, Student Academic Success Services (SASS); and Yiyi He (PhD Candidate) Cultural Studies
- Critical thinking, like academic writing, is not always explicitly taught to students prior to entering higher education, regardless of their background.
- Critical thinking skills develop through explicit instruction and repeated practice.
- Students benefit from understanding:
- the “importance of argument, research and supporting evidence in the construction” 9 (p. 59) of English academic writing
- that North American academic culture typically expects them to generate logical opinions informed by research and critically analyze others’ ideas
- Explain what critical thinking means in the discipline, as distinct from criticism2, 9.
- Assign readings with guided questions that elicit the required level of analysis.
- Provide well-developed samples of critical writing and explain how they meet expectations.
- Offer guiding questions to support early critical writing tasks.
- Reinforce students’ critical thinking abilities by analyzing writing samples to identify argument, opinions, and supporting evidence, and to make suggestions for improvement.
- Provide constructive feedback focusing on developing analysis and argument, and invite resubmission that incorporates the feedback.
Session Three: Citation Practices
Contrary to portrayals of international students as persistent plagiarizers, this workshop examines the cultural and educational factors that shape students’ experiences with citation practices and may contribute to academic integrity concerns in English academic writing.
Facilitated by Yunyi Chen, Centre for Teaching and Learning
Panelists: Ian Garner, Student Academic Success Services (SASS); Matt Rahimian, Office of the Provost and Vice-Principal (Academic); Amir Hossein Sojoodi, (PhD candidate) Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
- Definitions of plagiarism vary across cultures; therefore, plagiarism-related issues:
- should not be viewed as simple, fixed, or purely technical
- should not be treated as a moral absolute3
- International students generally do not intend to violate academic integrity policies; rather, they require time, guidance, and practice to develop ownership of their use of English6.
- Plagiarism cannot be effectively addressed without adopting a pedagogical rather than judicial approach10.
- Question false assumptions and oversimplified approaches to plagiarism involving international students3, 10-14.
- Teach the concept of intellectual property by explicitly explaining ownership of ideas.
- Help students understand the relationship between their ideas and research sources.
- Teach citation skills alongside strategies for developing authorial voice.
- Analyze discipline-specific texts to highlight expected citation and writing conventions.
- Model ethical citation practices consistently—actions speak louder than words.
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2 Arkoudis, S., Baik, C., & Richardson, S. (2012). English Language Standards in Higher Education: From entry to exit. Australian Council for Educational.
3 Pennycook, A. (1996). Borrowing others words: text, ownership, memory and plagiarism. TESOL Quarterly, 30 (2), 201-230.
4 Hayes, N., Introna, L., & Whitley, E. (2005). Cultural Values, Plagiarism, and Fairness: When Plagiarism Gets in the Way of Learning. Ethics & Behavior, 213-231.
5 Currie, P. (1998). Staying out of trouble: Apparent plagiarism and academic survival. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7 (1), 1-18.
6 Hu, J. (2001). An alternative perspective of language re-use: Insights from textual and learning theories and L2 academic writing. English Quarterly, 33 (1/2), 52-62.
7 Xu, X. (2012). Cultural factors in EAP teaching—Influences of thought pattern on English academic writing. Cross-cultural Communication, 8 (4), 53-57.
8 Chien, S. (2014). Cultural constructions of plagiarism in students writing: Teachers’ perceptions and responses. Research in the Teaching of English, 49 (2).
9 McLean, P. & Ransom, L. (2005). Building intercultural competencies: Implications for academic skills development. In J. Carroll & J. Ryan (Ed.), Teaching international students: Improving learning for all. New York: Routledge.
10 Adhikari, S. (2018). Beyond Culture: Helping International Students Avoid Plagiarism. Journal of International Students, 8(1), 375-388.
11 Howard, R. M. (2001). Forget about plagiarism: Just teach. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
12 Hudley, C. & Mallison, C. (2014). We do language: English language variation in the secondary English classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.
13 Simon, D. J. (2019). Cross-cultural differences in plagiarism: Fact or fiction. Duquesne Law Review, 57(1), 73-91.
14 Thompson, L. W., Bagby, J. H., Sulak, T. N., Sheets, J., & Trepinski, T. M. (2017). The cultural elements of academic honesty. Journal for International Students 7(1), 136–153.
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